Jī 基 (632–682) [aka Kuījī 窺基] plays a relatively minor role in the history of the Heart Sutra. He composed a commentary: Bānrěbōluómìduō xīn jīng yōu zàn «般若波羅蜜多心經幽贊». Although it is undated, and assuming the attribution is accurate, it had to be composed before his death on 27 December 682. It may be the earliest commentary on the Heart Sutra.
He is associated with a historically important, though relatively short-lived Chinese Yogācāra movement, usually referred to as Fǎxiàng-zōng 法相宗 "Dharma Characteristics School" (though as we will see, this is not what they called themselves). As the "patriarch" of this movement, Kuījī wrote a number of influential commentaries.
In modern Buddhist literature, it is de rigueur to refer to everyone associated with Xuanzang 玄奘 as his "disciple". However, this inflationary approach is frequently inaccurate. For example, the translator Woncheuk was never Xuanzang's student, let alone his "disciple". He was a capable scholar in his own right before he met Xuanzang. However, Jī does seem to have been Xuanzang's student.
The biography in the Sòng Gāosēng Zhuàn 宋高僧傳 "Song Dynasty Biographies of Eminent Monks" (T 2061) gives us a basic outline of his life. A translation of Jī's biography follows this essay. Weinstein (1959: 122) refers to this as "by far the longest biography" suggesting that all of the modern biographies to that point had relied almost exclusively, and naively, on the Sòng Gāosēng Zhuàn. Weinstein (1959: 122) comments:
Unfortunately, however, the [Sòng Gāosēng Zhuàn] biography, despite its length and seeming detail, is filled with the wildest statements and reveals so many glaring internal contradictions that any fact contained therein, lacking support from other sources must be considered suspect.
Weinstein sought to glean biographical detail from a much wider range of sources, including mentions in the biographies of other people. In the process, he notes several aspects of the account in the Sòng Gāosēng Zhuàn are unreliable, especially Xuanzang's supposed early meeting with Jī. As such, Weinstein (1959) is a valuable secondary source, while the Sòng Gāosēng Zhuàn should be used with care, especially if it is the sole source of any given fact.
A curious feature of biographies of Jī is that they locate major events in time by giving his age rather than the date which introduces a margin of error. In Tang China, age was typically counted using the East Asian system, where a person was considered one year old at birth, and age increased by one with each Lunar New Year, not on their actual birthday. Which is another potential source of error.
The Name Kuījī
Scholars routinely refer to Kuījī, probably because the Sòng Gāosēng Zhuàn does. However, at least two scholars have problematised this name. Weinstein (1959: 129) had already noted that while Kuījī is the most common form of his name, Kuījī refers to himself in the third person as “Jī 基”. Weinstein argues that the name Kuījī conflates Jī with another "almost totally unknown monk" called Kuī. He Huanhuan (2017: 63) similarly stated that the monk’s name was simply Jī 基 and that Kuī 窺 may be a scribal error or the name of another monk.
Jorgensen (2002) refers to him as “Dasheng Ji” [i.e. 大乘基 “Mahāyāna Ji”] throughout. Weinstein (1958: 131 n. 44) notes that the affectation of adding dàshèng 大乘 "Mahāyāna" to names was common amongst Xuanzang's followers. Jī is also commonly referred to by his posthumous title, Ci’en dàshī 慈恩大師 “Master of Ci’en”, after Dàcí’ēn Sì 大慈恩寺 "Great Temple of Compassion" where he lived. For example, Weinstein refers to him as Tz’ǔ-ên (i.e. Ci’en 慈恩) throughout.
I'm persuaded by the arguments of Weinstein (1959) and He (2017) and, henceforth, I will refer to this person as Jī 基.
Biography
Jī's clan (the Yùchí 尉遲) was from Central Asia but, during the Later Wei Dynasty, they were incorporated into China and became thoroughly Sinified. The Lǐ 李 clan, who ruled the Tang, also had Central Asian ancestry and the Yùchí were their staunch allies. Jī was raised in Chang'an, the primary imperial capital of the Tang.
Biographers agree that Jī was a precocious child with an excellent memory. After being orphaned at age 9 (ca. 640) he was raised by his uncle, Yùchí Jìngdé 尉遲敬德, who played a significant role in the unification of China under the Tang Dynasty. Yùchí Jìngdé is often celebrated in Chinese history and folklore for his bravery and martial skills. Aged 17, he joined the Buddhist monastic sangha. Possibly, with the help of Xuanzang, but Weinstein calls this into question.
Aged 23 (ca 644 CE), Jī was appointed to Dàcí’ēn Sì 大慈恩寺. Note that such appointments were notionally made by the emperor (or more realistically, by the imperial administration in the emperor's name) and monks had no choice but to obey.
Jī learned Sanskrit from Xuanzang. Aged 25 (ca 656 CE, around the time that the Heart Sutra was being composed) he joined Xuanzang's cadre of translation assistants and participated in the translations of numerous texts. Note that Xuanzang was a devout follower of Yogācāra. This included worship of Maitreya, who reputedly dictated certain Yogācāra texts to their ostensible human authors. Xuanzang died in early 664 CE, meaning that Jī was his translation assistant for about 8 years.
Chinese Yogācāra was already quite contested. Schools of thought had crystallised around competing interpretations of Daśabhūmika-sūtra-śāstra (attributed to Vasubandhu) by Bodhiruchi and Ratnamati. A third school formed around new ideas introduced by Paramārtha in the mid-6th century. It is said that the disputes were part of what motivated Xuanzang to travel to India seeking copies of the Yogācārabhūmi. In the end, Xuanzang introduced yet another competing interpretation (attributed to Dharmapāla), which he learned from Śīlabhadra (Dharmapāla's student). It was in this last form of Yogācāra that Jī became an expert.
Jī went on to found the Weishi 唯識 "Representation Only" (vijñapti-mātra) school in China. Here we need to be a little bit careful. While in India we see distinct schools of Buddhism, by the time such ideas got to China the boundaries were less clear. Moreover, the Chinese were constantly trying to harmonise all the different Buddhist teachings, either by creating a synthesis (often incorporating Madhyamaka, Yogācāra, Huayan, and Tathāgatagarbha into one) or by creating hierarchical schemes to classify schools in order of profundity, thus subsuming lower ranked schools within higher ranked ones.
The name of Jī's "school" derives from the seminal Yogācāra treatise by Vasubandhu: Triṃśikā-vijñapti-mātratā-śāstra or The Thirty Verses on Representation Only Treatise (though it is often abbreviated to Triṃśīkā). Xuanzang translated the Triṃsikā as Wéishì sānshí lùn sòng «唯識三十論頌» (T 1586) in 648 CE (i.e. very early on). However, Xuanzang's translation also included some edited translations of other authors on the Triṃśikā.
In 659 CE, Xuanzang translated Dharmapāla's commentary on the Triṃśaka, as Chéng wéishí lùn «成唯識論» (T 1585). This comprehensive explanation of Yogācāra became the primary text of Jī's Weishi school. Jī's commentary on Xuanzang's translation was called Chéng wéishílùn shùjì 成唯識論述記 (T 1830); often referred to simply as Shuji 述記. Jī lauded Xuanzang's approach and disparaged Paramārtha's. Another of Xuanzang's assistants, the Korean monk Woncheuk, was well-versed in existing Chinese Yogācāra and disagreed with Xuanzang (and thus Kuījī) on the best interpretation (Jorgensen 2002).
Xuanzang died in early 664 CE, at which point Emperor Gaozong withdrew the funding for, and disbanded, his translation team. Jī returned to live in Dàcí’ēn Sì 大慈恩寺 and devoted himself to scholarship. He wrote numerous other commentaries on Yogācāra treatises and some sutras, including the Heart Sutra.
The Weishi 唯識 school is also commonly referred to as Fǎxiàng 法相 "dharma characteristics", originally a pejorative label bestowed by their opponents (and thus not really suitable). The Weishi school had two further leaders but it gradually fizzled out. Which was more or less the end of Xuanzang's influence on Chinese Buddhism.
Jī died in 682 CE. But not before composing an undated commentary on the Heart Sutra:
Bānrě bōluómìduō xīn jīng yōuzàn «般若波羅蜜多心經幽贊» “Profound Explanation of the Sutra of the Essence of Prajñāpāramitā” (T 1710).
The date of Jī's death is important for Heart Sutra research since we know that his commentary on the Heart Sutra had to have been composed before this. This makes it a strong candidate for being the first commentary. The other main contender, Woncheuk's commentary, is also undated (he died in 696 CE).
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Bibliography
He, Huanhuan. (2017). “Whence Came the Name Kuiji Instead of Just Ji.” The Eastern Buddhist 48(2): 51-68.
Jorgensen, John. (2002). “Representing Wŏnch’ŭk: Meditations on Medieval East Asian Biographies”. In Religion and Biography in China and Tibet, edited by Benjamin Penny. Routledge.
Weinstein, Stanley. (1959). ‘A Biographical Study of Tz’ŭ-ên.’ Monumenta Nipponica 15(1/2): 119-149.
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唐京兆大慈恩寺窺基傳
Táng Jīngzhào Dà Cí’ēn Sì Kuījī Zhuàn
Biography of Kuījī of Dà Cí’ēn Temple in Jīngzhào, Tang
From the Sòng Gāosēng Zhuàn 宋高僧傳 (T 2061; 725b18-726c05), compiled by Zanning 贊寧, 988 CE.
The monk Kuījī 窺基, courtesy name Hóngdào 洪道, belonged to the Yùchí 尉遲 clan and was a native of Cháng’ān 長安 in Jīngzhào 京兆. The ancestors of the Yùchí clan arose alongside the Later Wei dynasty and were known as the Yùchí bù 尉遲部 "Yùchí Tribe." Like the feudal states of ancient China, they were a semi-autonomous group. When they integrated into Chinese society, they adopted their tribal name as their surname.
* Note that the name 尉遲 was originally Central Asian.
Luójiā 羅迦 was Kuiji’s ancestor, he was a descendant of the sixth generation of the Yùchí clan and a general of the Western Garrison in Sui Dynasty’s Dàizhōu 代州 (an ancient administrative region in China, located in what is now part of Shanxi Province 山西省).
Kuiji’s father, Zōng 宗, held the titles of General of the Left Imperial Guard, Governor of Songzhou, and Duke of Jiangyou County in the Tang Dynasty. His uncle, Dé 德, was the Duke of È 鄂, and his biography is recorded in the Táng Shū 唐書 "History of the Tang Dynasty". Kuiji’s mother, Madame Péi 裴氏, dreamed of swallowing a moon, and upon waking, she found herself pregnant. When Kuiji was born, he was unlike other children, displaying remarkable intelligence and a natural aptitude for learning.
The Master Xuánzàng 玄奘 first noticed Kuiji on the road, observing his handsome features and dignified demeanour. Xuánzàng remarked, “This is surely the offspring of a military family. If fate allows, he should become my disciple, and my teachings will find a worthy successor.”
Xuánzàng also recalled a divination he had performed in India, which predicted a favourable outcome: “If the master returns east, a wise disciple will appear.” Xuánzàng then visited Kuiji’s father, subtly suggesting that Kuiji should become a monk. His father replied, “He is rough and unruly; how could he endure monastic discipline?” Xuánzàng responded, “Such a temperament could only come from a general, and only I can recognize his potential.” Though his father agreed, Kuiji himself resisted. After much persuasion, Kuiji finally relented but declared, “I will only take monastic vows if three conditions are met: I will not renounce desires, meat, or eating after noon.” Xuánzàng, using skilful means, agreed to these terms, knowing he could later guide Kuiji toward enlightenment. This led to Kuiji being mockingly called the “Monk of Three Carts” by locals. This occurred in the 22nd year of the Zhēnguān 貞觀 era (648 CE).
* note that Weinstein (1959) considers this narrative about Xuanzang and Ji to be apocryphal and it is not corroborated by other sources.
Kuiji himself once wrote, “At the age of nine, I faced hardship and gradually distanced myself from worldly frivolities.” If this is true, then the story of the “Three Carts” is likely an exaggeration. By the age of seventeen, Kuiji had entered the monastic community. Upon ordination, he was appointed as Xuánzàng’s disciple and initially resided at Guǎngfú Sì 廣福寺.
Later, by imperial decree, he was selected among the most intelligent monks to join Dàcí’ēn Sì 大慈恩寺. There, he studied Sanskrit under Xuánzàng, mastering its complexities with ease. His knowledge and insight earned widespread admiration. He memorized vast portions of Buddhist texts effortlessly, rarely needing to revisit them. At twenty-five, he was summoned to assist in translating scriptures, and he lectured on over thirty texts from both the Mahayana and Hinayana traditions. He was diligent in his studies and authored numerous commentaries, totalling around one hundred works.
When Xuánzàng translated the Wéishí Lùn 唯識論 (Vijñaptimātratāsiddhi "Consciousness-Only Treatise"), Kuiji initially collaborated with three others: Fǎng 昉, Shàng 尚, and Guāng 光. However, after a few days, Kuiji requested to withdraw. When Xuánzàng asked why, Kuiji replied, “I dreamt of a golden figure and awoke to seek the Dharma. Though I have grasped the teachings, I fear I have lost their essence. I do not wish to contribute to a diluted version. If the text is unified under one author, responsibility will be clear.” Xuánzàng agreed and dismissed the other three, entrusting the task solely to Kuiji, recognizing his superior ability.
On one occasion, Kuiji felt disheartened when another monk, Cè 測 of Xīmíng Sì 西明寺 (i.e. Woncheuk), secretly listened to his lectures on the Wéishí Lùn 唯識論 (Vijñaptimātratāsiddhi) and began teaching it himself. Xuánzàng consoled Kuiji, saying, “Though Cè has written a commentary, he has not mastered the principles of logic.” Xuánzàng then taught Kuiji the works of Dignāga, and Kuiji excelled in the “Three Syllogisms,” becoming unparalleled in his ability to debate and expound on Buddhist philosophy.
Kuiji later travelled to Wǔtái Shān 五臺山, where he had a profound dream. In the dream, he stood halfway up a mountain, hearing the cries of countless suffering beings below. He climbed to the summit, which was made of lapis lazuli, and saw all the lands of the world. A voice from a city above called out, “Halt! Kuiji, you should not be here yet.” Two heavenly children emerged and asked, “Do you see the suffering beings below?” Kuiji replied, “I hear them but cannot see them.” The children gave him a sword and instructed him to cut open his abdomen. When he did, two beams of light shone forth, illuminating the suffering below. The children then gave him scrolls and a brush, which he took with him. Upon waking, Kuiji discovered the Mílè Shàngshēng Jīng 彌勒上生經 (Maitreya Sutra) glowing in the temple. He interpreted this as a sign from Maitreya to write a commentary on the sutra. As he wrote, relics fell from his brush, a miraculous occurrence.
Kuiji was known for his towering stature and commanding presence, yet he was deeply compassionate and tirelessly taught others. He built statues of Maitreya and Manjushri and copied the Jīnzì Bōrě Jīng 金字般若經 "Prajna Sutra in Gold Ink," which also emitted divine light. His disciples revered him as a successor to Xuánzàng.
Kuiji passed away on the 13th day of the 11th month in the first year of Yǒngchún 永淳 (27 December 682 CE) at the age of fifty-one. He was buried near Xuánzàng’s tomb, and his funeral was attended by a vast crowd of monks and laypeople. Kuiji’s legacy as a master of Buddhist philosophy and commentary endures to this day.
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